Linking ideas in academic writing

Linking words, also called connectors or discourse markers, show the reader how your ideas relate to each other. Used well, they make writing easy to follow. Used badly, they confuse the reader or make the writing sound mechanical. The key is to choose the linker that matches the exact relationship between two ideas.

Contrast

• However starts a new sentence and is followed by a comma: Online courses are flexible. However, many students find them isolating.
• Although and even though join two clauses in one sentence: Although online courses are flexible, many students find them isolating.
• Despite and in spite of are followed by a noun or an -ing form, not a clause: Despite their flexibility, online courses can be isolating.
• Whereas and while compare two different facts: Some students prefer live classes, whereas others value flexibility.
• Nevertheless and nonetheless mean “despite this” and are more formal than however: The evidence is limited. Nevertheless, the results are encouraging.

Cause and effect

• Because of and due to + noun: The event was postponed due to bad weather.
• As a result, consequently and therefore introduce a result: Rents have risen sharply. As a result, many young people are living with their parents for longer.
• Since and as give a reason the reader may already know: Since the data is incomplete, the conclusions are provisional.

Addition

• Furthermore, moreover and in addition add a further or stronger point: The policy is expensive. Moreover, there is little evidence that it works.
• Not only... but also emphasizes two points: The program not only saves money but also reduces emissions.

Examples and clarification

• For example and for instance: Many cities, for instance Copenhagen, have invested heavily in cycling.
• Such as + noun: renewable sources such as wind and solar
• In other words and that is to say restate an idea more simply.

Common mistakes

• Wrong: Despite it was raining, we went out. Right: Despite the rain, we went out. or Although it was raining, we went out.
• Wrong: The plan is cheap, however it is slow. Right: The plan is cheap; however, it is slow. or The plan is cheap. However, it is slow.
• Wrong: Although it was expensive, but we bought it. Right: Although it was expensive, we bought it.

Don't overuse them

Not every sentence needs a linker. If the connection between two sentences is already obvious, a linker can make the writing feel heavy. Two or three well-chosen linkers per paragraph are usually enough.

A model paragraph

Working from home offers clear advantages for many employees. For instance, it removes the daily commute, which can save several hours each week. However, these benefits come at a cost. Whereas office workers can solve problems quickly in person, remote teams often rely on long chains of messages. As a result, many companies have adopted a hybrid model, which aims to combine the flexibility of home working with the collaboration of the office.